A final paper for SOC 362: Race Relations.
Part I
Mythological epics largely represent the society or community in which they derive. Whether considering the Odyssey and Iliad of the Greeks, the Mahabharata and Ramayana of the Indians, the Shahnameh of the Iranians, the Arthurian romances of the British, or the Icelandic sagas of Northern Europe, mythological epics offer a window into a community’s collective ethos, origin stories and mythology, and is part of the basis in which a community or nation develops. However, the epic poetry of African nations remains largely unknown in the West – indeed, some Eurocentric scholars deny that epic poetry exists in Africa at all, with one, rather insultingly, stating that “. . . the intellectual effort required for such an advance [to epic poetry] seems to have been beyond [Africans’] powers” (“Deme quoting Bowra” – Deme 4).
However, deeper research refutes such views, as my discussion of African epic poetry shall demonstrate. I have chosen two epics for consideration: the epic of Sundiata from Mali, and the Ozidi Saga of the Ijo people of the Niger delta. These two epics are among the most highly regarded of the African continent, and all are exquisite examples of both the cultures they represent, as well as manifestations of the genre of epic poetry.
It may be asked why one should even bother in researching epic poetry? Is the artform merely of interest to anthropologists, cultural historians, or, simply put, nerds? Although I cannot legitimately claim to be among the first or second group, but probably a reluctant member of the latter, I still argue that epic poetry provides a window into a culture’s collective psyche, as well as a sense of cultural belonging and awareness to both their communities and diaspora communities desiring to understand their ethnic and cultural origins, while providing benefit to the whole of humanity in their literary quality and ethical lessons. “Epics . . . just like any other literary genre, are part and parcel of the societies that produce them” (Deme 4), and in that spirit, they provide a portal to the communities which yielded them.
My motivation for researching these epics was generated from two sources. The first was Frantz Fanon, who states that “. . . the responsibility of the native man of culture is not a responsibility vis-à-vis his national culture, but a global responsibility with regard to the totality of the nation, whose culture merely, after all, represents one aspect of that nation” (Fanon). The second is the reaction of W.E.B. DuBois’ reaction to seeing Richard Wagner’s Der Ring des Nibelungen, where, despite’s the Ring’s Icelandic and Germanic mythological roots, DuBois states the experience “. . . is as though someone of us chose out of the wealth of African folklore a body of poetic material and, with music, scene, and action, re-told for mankind the suffering and triumphs and defeats of a people” (Ross 274). Due to the violence meted out to Africans and the African diaspora stemming from their forced migration because of slavery, the rich source of cultural pride and awareness to be derived from knowledge of African epic poetry was likely unavailable to DuBois – as it remains largely unknown to many today within the African diaspora. In addition, with the decline in orthodox religious belief, knowledge of epic myth may add richness and spiritual purpose to those who no longer espouse religious convictions. DuBois would nod approvingly to Wagner’s quote that “. . . where Religion becomes artificial, it is reserved for Art to save the spirit of religion by recognizing the figurative value of the mythic symbols which the former would have us believe in their literal sense, and revealing their deep and hidden truth through an ideal presentation” (Wagner 213). Regardless of whether one has retained orthodox religious beliefs, it is the birthright of every member of the African diaspora to know of the epic poetry of their ancestors.
Part II
In evaluating the epics chosen, I would like to rely upon studies of the foundations of ethnicity via the work of Frantz Fanon, whom I’d quoted above. As intimated, there has been a consistent Eurocentric bias against African culture in general, and African epic poetry in particular. Fanon’s work assists in ascertaining the effects of colonialism on the devaluation of African culture, as well as the debasement inherent with unquestioned cultural assimilation to European models.
Secondly, I will apply Black feminist thought to the evaluation of the epics I’ve chosen, with an emphasis on the strength of the female characters within them, as well as a discussion of why female characters are marginalized in epic poetry – both in African and European examples. Specifically, I will draw upon the work of Patricia Hill Collins, whose conceptual “matrix of domination” will provide a framework in evaluating the female characters within the epics I’ve chosen.
Finally, I shall evaluate the Eurocentrism displayed in some quarters towards African epic poetry. In doing so, I shall use the framework provided by Fanon, as well as Lipsitz’s concepts of “white spatial imaginary” – which, in this case, is manifested in applying Eurocentric values and presumptions while evaluating African epics, which has often resulted in the dismissal and devaluation of African epic poetry. To quote Deme, “. . . there is undoubtedly something inherently wrong in always wanting to make the literature of other parts of the world fit European stylistic models as if Europe were the one and only valid reference” (Deme 6).
Supplementing the above will be insights from Mariam Konaté Deme, Isidore Okpewho, Mugyabuso Mulokozi, Molefi Kete Asante, Daniel Biebuyck, Claude Lévi-Strauss, James George Frazer, and Joseph Campbell. My intent is to extend my own cultural vocabulary and intellectual framework in researching and evaluating the epics presented in this proposal, and it seems appropriate to include some European and American sources in which I am familiar, then build on this foundation with more contemporary African sources. As succinctly articulated by Molefi Kete Asante, “. . . the Europeanization of human consciousness masquerades as a universal will. Even in our reach for Afrocentric possibilities in analysis and interpretation, we often find ourselves having to unmask experience in order to see more clearly the transformations of [African] history” (Asante 138).
Now it is appropriate to give a brief overview of the two epics I’ve chosen. The Epic of Sundiata derives from Mali, which tells the story of Sundiata and his rise to emperor of Mali. Sundiata’s father is the king of Mali, while his mother, “nicknamed “Kediougou,” which means unattractive, gives birth to him as one of his father’s wives” (Juang 1037). Sundiata’s father married his mother, despite her “ugliness,” in order to fulfill the prophecy of Sundiata’s birth which was foretold by the king’s oracles. Sundiata’s father was also married to a conventionally beautiful woman, and eventually both women produce sons for the king. At birth, Sundiata is paralyzed, and his father’s beautiful first wife berates Sundiata’s mother for producing a crippled heir. Hearing this insult, Sundiata miraculously gets up and walks. After a period of several years, Sundiata’s father dies, and in fear of his half-brother and stepmother, Sundiata and his mother flee Mali. This inaugurates a period of homelessness and trial for Sundiata, as he and his mother are refused sanctuary in the lands they visit. Finally, he and his mother visit his mother’s ancestral homeland, where Sundiata grows mightily in stature, knowledge, and skill. Meanwhile, his father’s land has become corrupt due to misrule and cruelty, until finally the people of his father’s kingdom, hearing of Sundiata’s growing prowess, implore him to liberate them. Returning to his father’s land, Sundiata meets with multiple setbacks and hardships, until, finally, a magic arrow vanquishes the evil ruler, Sumanguru Kante, who, while wounded, manages to escape. Despite this, Mali becomes a prosperous empire again under the rule of Sundiata, and even today, the “people of Mali consider him the father of their nation”(Juang 1038).
The other epic in question is the Saga of Ozidi. Like Sundiata, Ozidi is greatly assisted by a powerful woman in his life, but in Ozidi’s case, it is his sorcerer grandmother. Also, like Sundiata, Ozidi has lost his birthright due to a dead father. Like his Greek counterpart, Odysseus, Ozidi is helped by a powerful feminine goddess, and, in general, is looked upon favorably by the deities. Also, like Odysseus, Ozidi goes on a long quest, facing trials and opponents that nearly break him. “Ozidi overcomes them all because the gods are with him, including Tamara the almighty, and they are with him because of his filial piety, a devotion to duty” (Scheub). Unfortunately, hubris later overtakes Ozidi – to a point where even his grandmother refuses to intervene when trouble overtakes him. Eventually, Ozidi’s mother comes to rescue him from his own self-inflicted trouble, thereby bringing “. . . innocence and simplicity to the rescue of her heroic son so that, when he recovers purified, there is a general sense of relief and rejoicing that natural order has at last been restored” (Scheub).
Part III
This brief overview of the two epics under discussion has been necessary to provide an adequate framework in evaluating them with the intellectual analyses provided by the thinkers mentioned in the beginning of Part II. My intent is show how certain facets of the epics lend themselves to meaningful metaphor, as well as how knowledge of the epics can add enrichment for the African diaspora, as well as for other readers.
Sundiata’s evil stepmother, while an African character in the epic, may serve as a representation of European colonialism, by both her self-proclaimed beauty, which mirrors Eurocentric hierarchical values and standards, as well as playing a role of supposed nurturer – when, in fact, she is a debaser and would-be destroyer. In this connection, “. . . colonialism therefore did not seek to be considered by the native as a gentle, loving mother who protects her child from a hostile environment, but as a mother who unceasingly restrains her fundamentally perverse offspring. . . “ (Fanon).
In addition, the Epic of Sundiata emphasizes that Sundiata must appeal to magical forces to prevail over his adversaries. It is episodes such as these which have led some Eurocentric scholars to proclaim that African epic poetry is not really “epic,” in that the hero relies upon magic to achieve success, rather than his own resources. Such views make “. . . claims that religion informs the supernatural element of the epic and is the monopoly of the “superior cultures” of Europe whereas the “primitive” and “savage” cultures of Africa are characterized by magic” (Deme 9). This view seems to take a cue from the work of James George Frazer, whose The Golden Bough states that the conception of gods and goddesses evolve from magical thinking to religion, until, finally, to human self-reliance. “As religion grows, magic declines into a black art” (Frazer 60). However, magic hardly disqualifies African epic literature from holding the “epic” moniker. To quote M.M. Mulokozi, “All epics tell a story. Hence all epics are heroic narratives. The only serious controversy regarding epic narrative relates to the structure of that narrative” (Mulokozi 13). In other words, subjecting African epic poetry to Eurocentric standards, in order to devalue it, is both objectionable and hegemonic. In short: such an approach betrays a sense of cultural superiority of Eurocentric scholars, and demonstrates subtle racism. In this connection, Lipsitz’s analysis of “white spatial imaginary” demonstrates, at least to my satisfaction, that the supposedly objective view of Eurocentric scholars use when devaluing African myth, because it doesn’t meet their own cultural standards, is also saturated with subtle racism. Per Lipsitz, “. . . because racial projects are flexible, fluid, and relational, the contours of anti-Black spaces are relevant to all communities of color. They are crucibles where other kinds of cruelty are learned and legitimated. When discrimination succeeds, it does not stop with one group but rather becomes generalized as a social principle and practice” (Lipsitz 12-13). Therefore, using arbitrary yardsticks to measure another culture’s myth is a fruitless exercise. To quote the imminent anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, “. . . whatever our ignorance of the language and the culture of the people where it originated, a myth is still felt as a myth by any reader throughout the world. Its substance does not lie in its style, its original music, or its syntax, but in the story which it tells” (Lévi-Strauss 430).
Finally, African epics are a total performance experience, where the bard and audience interact, thereby showing marked similarity with ancient Greek epics and theatre. “Besides the actual bard and his aides . . . there is a diverse, and sometimes large, actively participating audience. There is a constant interplay between these three categories of participants” (Biebuyck 22).
With the Ozidi Saga the protagonist is protected by a sorcerer grandmother, and later, after experiencing a period of hubris and defeat, Ozidi is made whole by his natural mother. From the perspective of Isidore Okpewho. “. . . Ozidi’s career of violence was mainly a response to the evils plaguing his family” (Okpewho, Kindle Location 1148). Accordingly, Ozidi, after a period of violence and hubris, is restored by embracing the feminine values of his mother. Additionally, women are given prominent place of pride in much of African literature, although, unfortunately, “. . . the tendency to down play [sic] the reality of female heroism while applauding male heroism is far more noticeable in African epics than it is in any other African literary genre” (Deme 110). In this connection, one may apply Patricia Hill Collins’s matrix of domination framework in analyzing African epics, as well as those stemming from other cultures. One may acknowledge the uncomfortable truth that historical epics often reflect a torn view of women which is comprised of a strange mixture of respect and misogyny. This may especially resonate for women of the African diaspora, who have habitually dealt with both racism and sexism. “Intersecting oppressions of race, class, gender, sexuality, and nation constitute global phenomena that have a particular organization in the United States . . . women of African descent have a distinctive, shared legacy that in turn is part of a global women’s movement” (Collins 250). In this connection, Okpewho’s suggestion is especially pertinent, in that the proper interpretation of the African sagas “. . . would be far less a religious or even an aesthetic one than one that targeted the sociopolitical context within which the tradition has been re-created, whether in a narrative or dramatic medium” (Okpewho, Kindle Location 1164). An appreciation of the African epics in their totality may lead to a fuller understanding of cultural misogyny or marginalization – which is hardly confined to African mythological epics but is demonstrated throughout all epic literature throughout the world. However, it would be mistaken to assume that all African mythology uniformly falls into traditionalist biases. Indeed, some African myths prize androgyny, as shown by “. . . ancestral images of certain African and Melanesian tribes show on one [carved figure] being the breasts of the mother and the beard and penis of the father” (Campbell 132).
Part IV
The significance of this proposal is to provide an overview of two of the most noteworthy African epics and how they may continue to provide insights into African culture, as well as a way for the African diaspora to nurture a cultural connection to their ancestral homeland. In addition, the benefits of knowledge of African epic literature may provide cultural and anthropological education and aesthetic enjoyment for all people, regardless of their ethnicity or cultural background.
In researching for this proposal, I perused the online exhibits of the National Museum of African American History & Culture, which is associated with the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, D.C. I was disappointed to find no reference to African literature in general, or reference to any African epic literature or mythology in particular. While it is true that the museum largely confines its exhibits to American sites and topics, it does offer some examples of non-American exhibits – so an exhibit on the epic literature of Africa is not incomprehensible, and, in my opinion, should be added to the museum’s collection.
As mentioned previously, African epic literature opens a window to the collective history and character of a people, as Homer does for the Greeks, and the Shahnameh does for Iranians. However, the benefits of African epic literature are not confined to those from Africa or among members of the African diaspora. All humans may derive insight and aesthetic enjoyment from African epic literature. Accordingly, high school and college courses offering African epic literature in the curriculum should be encouraged. Also, as attested by the commercial and critical success of Marvel’s Black Panther film, there is a potential broader audience for African-based mythology.
Finally, to reiterate, African epic mythology and literature provide the African diaspora with a connection to their ancestral homeland. With the study and performance of the African mythological epics, it can be reasonably surmised that this connection will become even more rich and meaningful.
Bibliography
Asante, Molefi Kete. The Afrocentric Idea. Temple University Press, 1998
Biebuyck, Daniel P. “The African Heroic Epic” Journal of the Folklore Institute, Vol. 13, No 1, 1976, pp. 5-36.
Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. New World Library, 2008.
Collins, Patricia Hill. Black Feminist Thought. Routledge, 2000.
Deme, Mariam Konaté. Heroism and the Supernatural in the African Epic (African Studies). Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition.
Fanon, Frantz. “On National Culture,” The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 2005.
Frazer, James George. The Golden Bough. Oxford World Classics, 2009.
Juang, Richard M. and Noelle Morrissette, ed. Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2008. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/washington/detail.action?docID=305238.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. “The Structural Study of Myth” The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 68, No. 270, Oct. – Dec 1955, pp. 428-444.
Lipsitz, George. How Racism Takes Place. Temple University Press, 2011.
Mulokozi, M.M. “The African Epic Controversy” Fabula, vol. 43, ½; 2002.
Okpewho, Isidore. Blood on the Tides: The Ozidi Saga and Oral Epic Narratology (Rochester Studies in African History and the Diaspora). Boydell & Brewer. Kindle Edition.
Ross, Alex. Wagnerism: Art and Politics in the Shadow of Music. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2020.
Scheub, Harold. “Ozidi, Driven by His Grandmother, Fate.” A Dictionary of African Mythology. Oxford University Press, 2002.
Wagner, Richard. Religion and Art. Trans. W. Ashton Ellis, University of Nebraska, 1994.